2. English Sound Systems
An Introduction to Language and Linguistics
A. Multiple
Choice Questions.
1.
How many letters are in English language?
a. 22
b. 24
c. 26
d. 28
2.
Which of the following organs of speech plays the most important role while
producing the nasal sound /n/?
a) The tongue
b) The hard palate
c) The alveolar
ridge
d) The blade of
the tongue
3. A
group of letters which has a complete meaning is called..........
a) word
b) clause
c) sound
d) phonetics
4. Which of the following sound is voiceless
sound?
a) /b/
b) /d/
c) /z/
d) /p/
5.
Which of the following words is stressed on the second syllable?
a) pavement
b) pigeon
c) peculiar
d) personality
6. Which
of the following is a three syllabic word?
a) Holiday
b) Nepal
c) Happy
d) Doctor
7.
Which of the following sound is different from others in the words given?
a) But
b) Love
c) Gone
d) Done
8.
How many sounds are in English language?
a. 40
b. 42
c. 44
d. 46
9.
Which among the following vowels is mid vowel?
a. /1/
b. /æ/
c. /Ʌ /
d. /ə /
10.
The final sound of the word "Song" is described as.............
a. voiced velar
stop
b. voiceless velar
nasal
c. voiced velar
nasal
d. Voiced velar
affricate
11.
The soft palate is also called.............
a. apex
b. lamina
c. velum
d. dorsum
12.
The three-term description of the English consonant sound /z/ is.............
a. voiceless,
alveolar, fricative
b. voiced,
alveolar, fricative
c. voiceless,
alveolar, plosive
d. voiced,
alveolar, plosive
13.
Which organ of speech makes sounds voiced and voiceless?
a. tongue
b. vocal cords
c. lips
d. teeth
14.
Which of the following organs is responsible for making a speech sound oral or
nasal?
a. The vocal cords
b. The nasal
cavity
c. the soft palate
d. The back of the
tongue
15.
Which of the following consonants is voiced, velar, and nasal?
a. /ŋ /
b. /m/
c. /b/
d. /ð/
16.
Apex is the.............
a. back of the
tongue
b. front of the
tongue
c. tip of the
tongue
d. blade of the
tongue
17.
If morpheme is the lowest unit of grammatical description, what is the lowest
phonetic description?
a. Syllable
b. Phone
c. Stress unit
d. Tone unit
18.
Which of the following words has a vowel sound different from that of the rest?
a. gone
b. but
c. done
d. love
B. Answer
the following questions.
1.
What are the differences between letters and sounds?
Or,
How
do letters and sounds correlate? Illustrate.
In a sound system,
it is essential to know about the difference between letters and sounds. There
are 26 letters in English. They are a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n,
o, p. q. r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y and z. Among them, a, e, i, o and u are vowel
letters. The letters b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y
and z are consonant letters. When we come to the discussion, many of us believe
that there are only 5 vowels.
However, there is
difference between letters and sounds. In general, there are two aspects in a
language: graphological presentation (letters) such as: a, b, c, d... as
consonants and a, e, i, o, u as vowels letters; and Phonics (sound system),
such as: /i:/, /æ/... as vowel sounds and /p/, /b/, /t/....as consonant sounds.
So, we need to be clear regarding the difference between the letters and
sounds.
English phonemes: vowels and consonants
The English Vowels
A vowel is a
speech sound which is produced without any disturbance or obstruction in the
vocal tract. All vowels are not produced in the same way. But they are produced
based on the position of the tongue, change in the lip position and shape of
the mouth. When we produce vowel sounds, the vocal cord vibrate and the soft
palate is raised.
The major twenty
English vowels sound symbols:
/i:/, /ɪ/, /ʊ/, /u:/,
/ə/, /ʌ/, /3:/, /a:/,
/æ/, /e/, /ɔ:/, /ɒ/,
/ea/, /ɪə/, /ʊə/, /eɪ/,
/a:i/, /ɔɪ/, /aʊ/, /əʊ/
The English
Consonants
A consonant is a
speech sound which is produced with obstruction in the vocal tract. When the
consonant sounds are produced, the airflow from the lungs is partially or
completely blocked. Likewise, there are some consonants where the airflow
passes through both mouth and nose. The major thing we need to know regarding
the consonant sounds is whether there is a vibration of vocal cords or not
while producing the consonant sounds. There are altogether 24 consonants in
English. Consonants are divided into three categories: voicing, place of
articulation and manner of articulation.
The major twenty four English Consonants sound symbols:
/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/,
/k/, /g/, /m/, /n/,
/ŋ/, /tʃ/, /z/, /dʒ/,
/ʒ/, /θ/, /ð/, /f/,
/v/, /j/, /r/, /l/,
/w/, /ʃ/, /s/, /h/
2.
Make a diagram of the organs of speech with different names of it.
Several speech
organs collaborate in the production of speech sounds. As our brain controls
several functions or actions we perform, the speech organs help in the
production of consonants and vowels. The air comes up from the lungs passes
through the windpipe (trachea) and moves through the larynx. Then, it goes out
either through mouth or nose. When it passes through mouth or nose, there is a
movement of other organs like tongue or lips; and the sounds are produced.
Therefore, organs
of speech include several organs such as lungs, trachea, larynx, palate, tongue
and lips. In a general sense, the primary function of lungs is breathing, the
tongue is connected with sense organs as to taste, teeth to chew food, and nose
to smell. However, it is essential to know that the airflow that passes from
the lungs through different organs such as teeth, lips, nose and other organs
helps to produce sounds as well.
The organs of speech are shown through the diagram below.
Alveolar Ridge, Nasal Cavity, Hard Palate,
Soft Palate, Teeth, Uvula,
Pharynx, Epiglottis, Tongue,
Blade, Front, Back,
Oesophagus, Larynx, Vocal Cords,
Trachea,
The Speech Organs
a) Parts of the
tongue
i. tip of the
tongue (apex)
ii. blade of the
tongue (lamina)
iii. front of the
tongue
iv. centre of the
tongue
v. back of the
tongue (dorsum)
vi. root of the
tongue
b) Alternative terms
Soft palate velum
Alveolar ridge teeth ridge
Tip of the tongue apex
Blade of the
tongue lamina
Back of the tongue
dorsum
Vocal cords vocal chords
Trachea wind pipe
Oesophagus food pipe
Larynx voice box
(Adam's apple)
3.
Distinguish between monophthongs and diphthongs.
Or,
Write
short note on the monophthongs and diphthongs of English.
A vowel is a
speech sound which is produced without any disturbance or obstruction in the
vocal tract. All vowels are not produced in the same way. But they are produced
based on the position of the tongue, change in the lip position and shape of
the mouth. When we produce vowel sounds, the vocal cord vibrate and the soft
palate is raised. Based on quality, the vowels can be divided into two types
viz, monophthongs and diphthongs. Monophthongs are the pure vowels (single
vowels) which do not change in the quality and the organs of speech for
monophthongs remain at the same position.
On the other hand,
in the production of diphthongs, while articulating diphthongs, the organs of
speech start in the position of one vowel and immediately move in the direction
to other vowel. A diphthong has the quality of two monophthongs. In the
beginning, it is like a monophthong and in the ending, it is like another
monophthong. So, it is represented by a sequence of two monophthongs. Since
there are two vowel symbols (phonemes) in a diphthong, we may think it as a
combination of two vowels. But it is not correct. Diphthongs are always equal
to monophthongs, i.e., one diphthong makes only one syllable.
The following list of monophthongs and diphthongs will illustrate the phonetic
notation of them:
Monopthongs
|
/i:/ sheep |
/ɪ/ ship |
/ʊ/ good |
/u:/ shoot |
|
/ə/ bed |
/ʌ/ teacher |
/3:/ |
/ɔ:/ door |
|
/æ/ cat |
/ʌ/ up |
/a:/ far |
/ɒ/ on |
Diphthongs
|
/ɪə/ here |
/eɪ/ wait |
/ʊə/ tourist |
/ɔɪ/ boy |
|
/əʊ/ show |
/ea/ hair |
/a:i/ |
/aʊ/ cow |
4.
Draw a diagram of organs of speech and indicate the following organs.
Alveolar
Ridge, pharynx, tip of the tongue, larynx, uvula
Several speech
organs collaborate in the production of speech sounds. As our brain controls
several functions or actions we perform, the speech organs help in the
production of consonants and vowels. The air that comes up from the lungs
passes through the windpipe (trachea) and moves through the larynx. Then, it
goes out either through mouth or nose. When it passes through mouth or nose,
there is a movement of other organs like tongue or lips; and the sounds are
produced.
Therefore, organs
of speech include several organs such as lungs, trachea, larynx, palate, tongue
and lips. In a general sense, the primary function of lungs is breathing, the
tongue is connected with sense organs as to taste, teeth to chew food, and nose
to smell. However, it is essential to know that the airflow that passes from
the lungs through different organs such as teeth, lips, nose and other organs
helps to produce sounds as well.
The given five organs of speech are shown through the diagram below.
Alveolar Ridge,
pharynx, tip of the tongue, larynx, uvula
5.
Give the symbol of initial sound of the words: know, bag, ten, dog, pen, river,
see, check, go, think.
A consonant is a
speech sound which is produced with obstruction in the vocal tract. When the
consonant sounds are produced, the airflow from the lungs is partially or
completely blocked. Likewise, there are some consonants where the airflow
passes through both mouth and nose. The major thing we need to know regarding
the consonant sounds is whether there is a vibration of vocal cords or not
while producing the consonant sounds. There are altogether 24 consonants in
English. Consonants are divided into three categories: voicing, place of
articulation and manner of articulation.
|
S. No. |
Symbols |
Initial |
|
1. |
/p/ |
pen |
|
2. |
/b/ |
bag |
|
3. |
/t/ |
ten |
|
4. |
/d/ |
dog |
|
5. |
/g/ |
go |
|
6. |
/s/ |
see |
|
7. |
/n/ |
know |
|
8. |
/tʃ/ |
check |
|
9. |
/θ/ |
think |
|
10. |
/r/ |
river |
The major twenty-four
English Consonants sound symbols:
/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/,
/k/, /g/, /m/, /n/,
/ŋ/, /tʃ/, /z/, /dʒ/,
/ʒ/, /θ/, /ð/, /f/,
/v/, /j/, /r/, /l/,
/w/, /ʃ/, /s/, /h/
6.
Give the three-term description of the following consonants: /k/, /g/, /t/,
/d/, /s/
A consonant is a
speech sound which is produced with obstruction in the vocal tract. When the
consonant sounds are produced, the airflow from the lungs is partially or
completely blocked. Likewise, there are some consonants where the airflow
passes through both mouth and nose. The major thing we need to know regarding
the consonant sounds is whether there is a vibration of vocal cords or not
while producing the consonant sounds. There are altogether 24 consonants in
English. Consonants are divided into three categories: voicing, place of
articulation and manner of articulation.
The major twenty-four
English Consonants sound symbols:
/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/,
/k/, /g/, /m/, /n/,
/ŋ/, /tʃ/, /z/, /dʒ/,
/ʒ/, /θ/, /ð/, /f/,
/v/, /j/, /r/, /l/,
/w/, /ʃ/, /s/, /h/
Three-term
description of the /k/, /g/, /t/, /d/, /s/consonants are as follows:
|
S. No. |
Symbols |
Initial |
Middle |
Final |
|
1. |
/t/ |
ten |
hotel |
cat |
|
2. |
/d/ |
dog |
middle |
bad |
|
3. |
/k/ |
cat |
maker |
stomach |
|
4. |
/g/ |
go |
beggar |
beg |
|
5. |
/s/ |
see |
past |
House |
7.
What is syllable? Discuss the onset, nucleus and the coda of the syllable with
illustration.
A syllable is
a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds typically made
up of a syllable nucleus (most often a vowel) with optional initial and
final margins (typically, consonants). Syllables are often considered
the phonological "building blocks" of words. They
can influence the rhythm of a language, its prosody, its poetic meter and
its stress patterns. Speech can usually be divided up into a whole number
of syllables: for example, the word writer is made of two
syllables: writ and er.
A word that
consists of a single syllable (like English dog) is called
a monosyllable / monosyllabic. Similar terms include disyllable /
disyllabic / bisyllable / bisyllabic for a word of two
syllables; trisyllable / trisyllabic for a word of three syllables; and polysyllable /
polysyllabic, which may refer either to a word of more than three syllables or
to any word of more than one syllable.
We have seen that
there are about 20 phonological choices for vowels in English, and about 24
phonological choices for consonants. English syllables are made up from one
vowel surrounded by zero or more consonants, but there are limitations on the
complexity and combinations of the consonant sequences.
Usually syllables
are divided into elements: onset, rhyme, nucleus and coda, as shown in the
diagram below. The justification for this is that many restrictions occur as to
what phonological elements can occur within these elements, but few
restrictions occur across elements.
Onsets
In English the
onset can consist of zero, one, two or three consonants. For example
"a" /eɪ/, "ray" /reɪ/, "pray" /preɪ/,
"spray" /spreɪ/. In onsets with three consonants, the first
consonant must be /s/. Also approximant sounds can only occur in the last
position next to the vowel, so we get /njuː/ but never /jnuː/, or /fli:/ but
never /lfi:/. If the syllable begins with /s/+ a plosive, then there is never a
distinction between voiced and voiceless plosives, that is if there is a word
/sp-/ then there is not a word /sb-/. The sound /ŋ/ does not occur in onsets.
Nucleus
In English the
nucleus is usually a single vowel, whether that is a long or a short
monophthong or a diphthong. Under certain limited situations, other sonorants
can take the place of the vowel, for example "puddle" as /pʌdl̩/.
We write a syllable mark underneath the consonant in transcription to indicate
that it is acting as a syllable nucleus.
Coda
In English the
coda can consist of zero, one, two, three or four consonants. For example:
"lee" /liː/, "lean" /liːn/, "link" /lɪŋk/,
"length" /leŋkθ/, "lengths" /leŋkθs/. In four
consonant codas, the last consonant can only be /s/ (in fact it can only be the
plural morpheme -s or the possessive marker 's). The only approximant sound
that can occur in a coda is /l/ (except for rhotic accents, which
also allow /r/). As in onsets, approximant sounds in the coda are always found
adjacent to the vowel. The sound /h/ does not occur in codas.
There are about 50
different onsets, 25 different nucleuses and 80 different codas in English,
which gives about 100,000 possible syllables. However only about 15,000 of
these actually occur in English words, and only about 10,000 of these occur as
mono-syllabic words.
8.
List down all the consonant sounds with an example of each.
Or,
Illustrate
the consonant sounds in words initial, middle, and final positions.
Or,
Discuss
the consonant system of English.
Or,
Give
the phonemic inventory of the English consonant sounds with examples.
In a sound system,
it is essential to know about the difference between letters and sounds. There
are 26 letters in English. They are a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n,
o, p. q. r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y and z. Among them, a, e, i, o and u are vowel
letters. The letters b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y
and z are consonant letters. When we come to the discussion, many of us believe
that there are only 5 vowels. However, there is difference between letters and
sounds. In general, there are two aspects in a language: graphological presentation
(letters) such as: a, b, c, d... as consonants and a, e, i, o, u as vowels
letters; and Phonics (sound system), such as: /i:/, /æ/... as vowel sounds and
/p/, /b/, /t/.... as consonant sounds. So, we need to be clear regarding the
difference between the letters and sounds.
A consonant is a
speech sound which is produced with obstruction in the vocal tract. When the
consonant sounds are produced, the airflow from the lungs is partially or
completely blocked. Likewise, there are some consonants where the airflow
passes through both mouth and nose. The major thing we need to know regarding
the consonant sounds is whether there is a vibration of vocal cords or not
while producing the consonant sounds.
The following chart presents the consonant sounds with examples in the initial,
middle and final position along with the spellings.
Inventory of English Consonants.
|
S. No. |
Symbols |
Initial |
Middle |
Final |
Spellings |
Remarks |
|
1. |
/p/ |
pen |
apple |
cap |
P |
|
|
2. |
/b/ |
bag |
table |
tab |
b |
|
|
3. |
/t/ |
ten |
hotel |
cat |
t |
|
|
4. |
/d/ |
dog |
middle |
bad |
d |
|
|
5. |
/k/ |
cat |
maker |
stomach |
k, ch, q, s, cc,
ck, с |
|
|
6. |
/g/ |
go |
beggar |
beg |
g |
|
|
7. |
/m/ |
man |
coming |
name |
m |
|
|
8. |
/n/ |
name |
manner |
man |
n |
|
|
9. |
/ŋ/ |
- |
English |
sing |
n, ng, nk |
no initial |
|
10. |
/tʃ/ |
check |
future |
catch |
ch, ture, tch |
|
|
11. |
/z/ |
zoo |
business |
was |
z, s |
|
|
12. |
/dʒ/ |
jug |
judging |
edge |
j, g, dg |
|
|
13. |
/ʒ/ |
genre |
closure |
garage |
s, ge |
|
|
14. |
/θ/ |
think |
bathing |
both |
th |
|
|
15. |
/ð/ |
they |
brother |
breathe |
th, the |
|
|
16. |
/f/ |
fan |
suffer |
rough |
f, ph, gh |
|
|
17. |
/v/ |
van |
travel |
cave |
v |
|
|
18. |
/j/ |
yes |
pure |
- |
y, u |
no final |
|
19. |
/r/ |
river |
mirror |
Car |
r |
not pronounced
before consonant and at final |
|
20. |
/l/ |
leg |
killed |
School |
1 |
no final |
|
21. |
/w/ |
was |
quality |
|
w, wh |
|
|
22. |
/ʃ/ |
she |
washing |
push |
sh, tion, s |
|
|
23. |
/s/ |
see |
past |
House |
s, c |
|
|
24. |
/h/ |
head |
perhaps |
- |
h |
no final |
9. Classify consonants in terms of their place
of articulation.
Consonants are
sounds that are produced with the articulators more or less close. That is,
they are produced with a close articulation, going from completely together to
only approximating.
Consonantal sounds
are classified according to three dimensions:
a) Voicing
b) Place of
articulation
c) Manner of
articulation
Voicing refers to
the activity of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are wide apart,
consonants are said to be voiceless, when they are closely together and
vibrating, consonants are said to be voiced.
The place of
articulation refers to that area in one of the resonating cavities (larynx,
mouth) where the articulators are opposing some kind of obstacle to the passing
of air.
The manner of
articulation refers to the way the articulators are set so that the resonance
effect is possible.
|
Description of
consonants |
||
|
1. Voicing |
2. Place or
articulation |
3. Manner of
articulation |
|
i) voiced (VD) |
i) Bilabial |
i) Stop
(Plosive) |
|
ii) voiceless
(VL) |
ii) Labiodental |
ii) Nasal |
|
|
iii) Dental |
iii) Fricative |
|
|
iv) Alveolar |
iv) Affricate |
|
|
v) Palato
alveolar |
v) Lateral |
|
|
vi) Palatal |
vi) Trill |
|
|
vii) Velar |
vii) Flap |
|
|
viii) Glottal |
viii)
Frictionless continuant |
|
|
|
ix) Semi-vowels |
Place of
articulation
The air passage
above the larynx is known as the vocal tract. The air coming from the lungs can
go out through two ways. It can go out either through the mouth or through the
nose. The air passage through the mouth is called oral tract and the passage of
the nose is called nasal tract. The vocal tract consists of several organs to
modify the air and to convert it into speech sounds, being called articulators.
(e.g., tongue, roof of the mouth, teeth, lips). When the air stream passes
through the vocal tract, it is interfered with several vocal organs
(articulators) to modify it so that different types of distinctive sounds are
produced. These sounds are the result of the physiological process which is
called articulation.
Active
articulators: Those articulators such as tongue and lower lip which move
towards others are known as active articulators.
Passive
articulators: Those articulators which do not move but the active articulator
move towards them are known as passive articulators. In the production of consonants,
the active articulator touches or becomes near to a passive articulator and
their meeting point is called the place of articulation. All English consonants
are divided into the following groups of places of articulation.
|
Classification |
Articulators |
Examples |
|
Bilabial |
Two lips |
/p, b, m, w/ |
|
Labiodental |
Lower lip and
upper teeth |
/f, v/ |
|
Dental |
Tip of the
tongue + upper teeth |
/θ/, /ð/ |
|
Alveolar |
teeth Tip of the
tongue + alveolar |
/t, d, s, z, n,
l/ |
|
Palato-alveolar (Post-alveolar) |
Back part of alveolar
ridge, and front part of hard palate + Tip or blade of the tongue |
/tf, d3, S. 3.
r/ |
|
Palatal |
Front of the
tongue hard palate |
/j/ |
|
Velar |
Soft palate +
back of the tongue |
/k, g, n/ |
|
Glottal |
Glottis (vocal
cords) |
/h/ |
Classification of
English consonants
|
Place |
Bilabial |
Labiodental |
Dental |
Alveolar |
Palato alveolar |
Palatal |
Velar |
Glottal |
||||||||
|
Manner |
||||||||||||||||
|
|
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
|
Plosives |
p |
b |
|
|
|
|
t |
d |
|
|
|
|
k |
g |
|
|
|
Affricates |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
tʃ |
dʒ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Fricatives |
|
|
f |
v |
θ |
ð |
s |
z |
ʃ |
ʒ |
|
|
|
|
h |
|
|
Nasals |
|
m |
|
|
|
|
|
n |
|
|
|
|
|
ŋ |
|
|
|
Lateral |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
l |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
semi-vowels |
|
w |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
r |
|
j |
|
|
|
|
10.
Classify all the English consonants in terms of their manner of articulation.
Consonants are
sounds that are produced with the articulators more or less close. That is,
they are produced with a close articulation, going from completely together to
only approximating.
Consonantal sounds
are classified according to three dimensions:
a) Voicing
b) Place of
articulation
c) Manner of
articulation
Voicing refers to
the activity of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are wide apart,
consonants are said to be voiceless, when they are closely together and
vibrating, consonants are said to be voiced.
The place of
articulation refers to that area in one of the resonating cavities (larynx,
mouth) where the articulators are opposing some kind of obstacle to the passing
of air.
The manner of
articulation refers to the way the articulators are set so that the resonance
effect is possible.
|
Description of
consonants |
||
|
1. Voicing |
2. Place or
articulation |
3. Manner of
articulation |
|
i) voiced |
i) Bilabial |
i) Stop
(Plosive) |
|
ii) voiceless |
ii) Labiodental |
ii) Nasal |
|
|
iii) Dental |
iii) Fricative |
|
|
iv) Alveolar |
iv) Affricate |
|
|
v) Palato
alveolar |
v) Lateral |
|
|
vi) Palatal |
vi) Trill |
|
|
vii) Velar |
vii) Flap |
|
|
viii) Glottal |
viii)
Frictionless continuant |
|
|
|
ix) Semi-vowels |
Manner of
articulation
When a consonant
is articulated, there is an obstruction or narrowing between two articulators
which modifies the breath into speech sounds. The way how the air in obstructed
is known as manner of articulation.
|
Classification |
Manner |
Examples |
|
Plosives (stops) |
Complete closure
and sudden release |
/p, b, t, d, k, g/ |
|
Affricates |
Complete closure
and slow release |
/tf, d3/ |
|
Fricatives |
Production of
sounds with audible friction through a narrow opening |
/f, v, θ, ð, s, z,
ʃ, ʒ, h/ |
|
Nasals |
Complete closure
at some point of the oral tract but the air goes out through the nose. |
/m, n, ŋ / |
|
Lateral |
Partial closure
and passing of air through the sides. |
/l/ |
|
Trill (rolled) |
Activ
articulator taps (strikes) against passive articulator several times. There
is intermittent closure. |
/r/ as in red |
|
Flap |
Active
articulator strikes against passive articulator once only. |
/r/ as in 'very' |
|
semi-vowels |
Wide opening
between the active articulator and passive articulator and the air passes without
friction. |
/r, w, j/ |
Classification of
English consonants
|
Place |
Bilabial |
Labiodental |
Dental |
Alveolar |
Palato alveolar |
Palatal |
Velar |
Glottal |
||||||||
|
Manner |
||||||||||||||||
|
|
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
|
Plosives |
p |
b |
|
|
|
|
t |
d |
|
|
|
|
k |
g |
|
|
|
Affricates |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
tʃ |
dʒ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Fricatives |
|
|
f |
v |
θ |
ð |
s |
z |
ʃ |
ʒ |
|
|
|
|
h |
|
|
Nasals |
|
m |
|
|
|
|
|
n |
|
|
|
|
|
ŋ |
|
|
|
Lateral |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
l |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
semi-vowels |
|
w |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
r |
|
j |
|
|
|
|
11.
Classify consonants in terms of voicing.
Consonants are
sounds that are produced with the articulators more or less close. That is,
they are produced with a close articulation, going from completely together to
only approximating.
Consonantal sounds
are classified according to three dimensions:
a) Voicing
b) Place of
articulation
c) Manner of
articulation
Voicing refers to
the activity of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are wide apart,
consonants are said to be voiceless, when they are closely together and
vibrating, consonants are said to be voiced.
The place of
articulation refers to that area in one of the resonating cavities (larynx,
mouth) where the articulators are opposing some kind of obstacle to the passing
of air.
The manner of
articulation refers to the way the articulators are set so that the resonance
effect is possible.
|
Description of
consonants |
||
|
1. Voicing |
2. Place or
articulation |
3. Manner of
articulation |
|
i) voiced |
i) Bilabial |
i) Stop
(Plosive) |
|
ii) voiceless |
ii) Labiodental |
ii) Nasal |
|
|
iii) Dental |
iii) Fricative |
|
|
iv) Alveolar |
iv) Affricate |
|
|
v) Palato
alveolar |
v) Lateral |
|
|
vi) Palatal |
vi) Trill |
|
|
vii) Velar |
vii) Flap |
|
|
viii) Glottal |
viii)
Frictionless continuant |
|
|
|
ix) Semi-vowels |
Voicing: voiced
and voiceless
It has already
been mentioned that human body contains a box like organs made of cartilage
inside the throat being called larynx and containing a pair of small elastic
bands of tissues which have been placed horizontally at the top of the trachea
being attached on the front and separate at the back. These bands of tissues
are called vocal cords. They can be held wide apart or loosely together or
tightly together. The breath coming from the lungs has to pass the vocal cords.
When the vocal cords are held loosely together, the air (breath) makes them
vibrate i.e., they open and close very rapidly (the maximum rate is 800 times
per second). When the vocal cords vibrate, they produce a musical noise which
is called voice and the sounds produced with the voice are called voiced sounds
and the sounds produced when the vocal cords are held wide open are called
voiceless sounds. In English /k/, /t/, /p/, /f/, / θ /, /s/, /tʃ/,
/h/ are voiceless consonants and the other are voiced.
Classification of
English consonants
|
Place |
Bilabial |
Labiodental |
Dental |
Alveolar |
Palato alveolar |
Palatal |
Velar |
Glottal |
||||||||
|
Manner |
||||||||||||||||
|
|
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
VL |
VD |
|
Plosives |
p |
b |
|
|
|
|
t |
d |
|
|
|
|
k |
g |
|
|
|
Affricates |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
tʃ |
dʒ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Fricatives |
|
|
f |
v |
θ |
ð |
s |
z |
ʃ |
ʒ |
|
|
|
|
h |
|
|
Nasals |
|
m |
|
|
|
|
|
n |
|
|
|
|
|
ŋ |
|
|
|
Lateral |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
l |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
semi-vowels |
|
w |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
r |
|
j |
|
|
|
|
12.
List down all the vowel sounds with an example of each.
Or,
Describe
the vowel sounds of English.
Or,
Discuss
the vowel system of English.
Or,
Give
the phonemic inventory of the English vowel sounds with examples.
In
a sound system, it is essential to know about the difference between letters
and sounds. There are 26 letters in English. They are a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h,
i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p. q. r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y and z. Among them, a, e, i, o
and u are vowel letters. The letters b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r,
s, t, v, w, x, y and z are consonant letters. When we come to the discussion,
many of us believe that there are only 5 vowels. However, there is difference
between letters and sounds. In general, there are two aspects in a language:
graphological presentation (letters) such as: a, b, c, d... as consonants and
a, e, i, o, u as vowels letters; and Phonics (sound system), such as: /i:/, /æ/...
as vowel sounds and /p/, /b/, /t/.... as consonant sounds.
The English Vowels
A
vowel is a speech sound which is produced without any disturbance or
obstruction in the vocal tract. All vowels are not produced in the same way.
But they are produced based on the position of the tongue, change in the lip
position and shape of the mouth. When we produce vowel sounds, the vocal cord
vibrate and the soft palate is raised.
Inventory
of English Vowels
The
major twenty English vowels along their examples are presented below:
|
S.No. |
Symbols |
Examples |
Spelling |
|
1. |
/i:/ |
he, she, we, be,
the, see, been |
e, ee, ea, ie,
eo, i |
|
2. |
/ɪ/ |
in, is, if, sit,
thing, fir, did, with, ill, him |
i, ui, e, ee |
|
3. |
/ʊ/ |
should, could,
put, book, look, |
o, ou, u, oo |
|
4. |
/u:/ |
zoo, two, too,
to, soon, pool, choose, tool |
o, oo, u, wo, e,
ou, ui |
|
5. |
/ə/ |
ago, along,
above, agree, again, under |
a, er, or, ar,
ure, a, o, e |
|
6. |
/ʌ/ |
up, but, us,
cup, cut, hut, mud, ton |
u, ou, o |
|
7. |
/3:/ |
year, learn,
earn, work |
ea, e, ir, ur,
or |
|
8. |
/a:/ |
car, far, jar,
arm, pass, calm, are, father |
ar, ou, er, al |
|
9. |
/æ/ |
mat, cat, sat,
fat, bat, pat, that, flat, sank |
a, ai |
|
10. |
/e/ |
met, get, set,
pet, net, let, wet, yet, step |
e, ea, ie, a, u |
|
11. |
/ɔ:/ |
for, or, torn,
corn, horn, north, dawn |
o, or, ou, ao, oo,
ough, |
|
12. |
/ɒ/ |
odd, off, of,
often, cock, dog, doll, hospital |
o, a, ough |
|
13. |
/ea/ |
there, chair,
dare, air, pair, hair, wear, tear |
ere, air, are,
ai, ea, |
|
14. |
/ɪə/ |
here, cheer,
mere, ear, seer, queer, steer |
ere, ear, ea,
eee, e, ie, eu |
|
15. |
/ʊə/ |
poor, tour,
sure, pure, influence |
ure, oor, ou, u,
ue |
|
16. |
/eɪ/ |
say, eight,
pain, they, day, snake |
ay, ey, ei, ai,
ay, ai, ea |
|
17. |
/a:i/ |
high, kind, sky,
by, buy, try, tight |
i, y, ie, i, ui |
|
18. |
/ɔɪ/ |
boy, toy, joy,
enjoy, annoy, royal |
oy, oi |
|
19. |
/aʊ/ |
now, cow, how,
bow, town, flower |
o, ou, ow, oa,
ough, ou |
|
20. |
/əʊ/ |
go, no, so, ago,
post, most, cold, open |
oa, o, ow, ough,
ou |
13.
Define vowels. Classify and describe the monophtongs of English.
In a sound system,
it is essential to know about the difference between letters and sounds. There
are 26 letters in English. They are a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n,
o, p. q. r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y and z. Among them, a, e, i, o and u are vowel letters.
The letters b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y and z
are consonant letters. When we come to the discussion, many of us believe that
there are only 5 vowels. However, there is difference between letters and
sounds. In general, there are two aspects in a language: graphological
presentation (letters) such as: a, b, c, d... as consonants and a, e, i, o, u
as vowels letters; and Phonics (sound system), such as: /i:/, /æ/... as vowel
sounds and /p/, /b/, /t/.... as consonant sounds.
A vowel is a
speech sound which is produced without any disturbance or obstruction in the
vocal tract. All vowels are not produced in the same way. But they are produced
based on the position of the tongue, change in the lip position and shape of
the mouth. When we produce vowel sounds, the vocal cord vibrate and the soft
palate is raised.
Monophthongs and
Diphthongs
There are 20 vowel sounds as we discussed in the previous section. Based on
quality, the vowels can be divided into two types viz, monophthongs and
diphthongs. Monophthongs are the pure vowels (single vowels) which do not
change in the quality and the organs of speech for monophthongs remain at the
same position. On the other hand, in the production of diphthongs, while
articulating diphthongs, the organs of speech start in the position of one
vowel and immediately move in the direction to other vowel. A diphthong has the
quality of two monophthongs. In the beginning, it is like a monophthong and in
the ending, it is like another monophthong. So, it is represented by a sequence
of two monophthongs. Since there are two vowel symbols (phonemes) in a
diphthong, we may think it as a combination of two vowels. But it is not
correct. Diphthongs are always equal to monophthongs, i.e., one diphthong makes
only one syllable.
Monopthongs
|
/i:/ sheep |
/ɪ/ ship |
/ʊ/ good |
/u:/ shoot |
|
/ə/ bed |
/ʌ/ teacher |
/3:/ |
/ɔ:/ door |
|
/æ/ cat |
/ʌ/ up |
/a:/ far |
/ɒ/ on |
Diphthongs
|
/ɪə/ here |
/eɪ/ wait |
- |
|
/ʊə/ tourist |
/ɔɪ/ boy |
/əʊ/ show |
|
/ea/ hair |
/a:i/ |
/aʊ/ cow |
14.
Distinguish between long and short vowel.
In a sound system,
it is essential to know about the difference between letters and sounds. There
are 26 letters in English. They are a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n,
o, p. q. r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y and z. Among them, a, e, i, o and u are vowel letters.
The letters b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y and z
are consonant letters. When we come to the discussion, many of us believe that
there are only 5 vowels. However, there is difference between letters and
sounds. In general, there are two aspects in a language: graphological
presentation (letters) such as: a, b, c, d... as consonants and a, e, i, o, u
as vowels letters; and Phonics (sound system), such as: /i:/, /æ/... as vowel
sounds and /p/, /b/, /t/.... as consonant sounds.
A vowel is a
speech sound which is produced without any disturbance or obstruction in the
vocal tract. All vowels are not produced in the same way. But they are produced
based on the position of the tongue, change in the lip position and shape of
the mouth. When we produce vowel sounds, the vocal cord vibrate and the soft
palate is raised.
On the basis of
the length, there are of two types of vowels: long and short vowels. They are
identified based on the length of time for their production. The vowels that
take longer time in their production are known as long vowels and those vowels
that take short time in the production are known as short vowels. In English,
all diphthongs and monophthongs with colon (:) long vowels and all others are
short vowels.
a) Long vowels:
/i:, u:, a:, :, u:, 3:/ + diphthongs = 13
b) Short
vowels: /ɪ, ʊ, e, a, æ, ʌ, ɒ/ = 7
15.
What is stress? Mention the general stressing rules.
Stress is a
suprasegmental feature which focuses on the focus of the word form to be
produced. In stressed sounds, the speaker spends more air from the lungs by
extra contraction of the muscles of the ribcage. Sometimes, there may also be
an extra activity of the laryngeal muscles so that there is an additional
increase in pitch. There may also be an increase in the muscular activity
involved in the articulator's movements.
Mainly in spoken language, stress plays a key role in language production. For
instance, the same word stressed on the first syllable is a noun and stressed
on the second syllable is a verb-an 'insult' vs. 'to in'sult. Stress can have a
grammatical function in English. It can be used for contrastive emphasis as in
I want a 'red book. (not a black one) Variations in stress are caused by an
increase in the activity of the respiratory muscles so that a greater amount of
air is pushed out of the lungs.
Stressing rules
Stressing a word
is a natural phenomenon. It is the ability of a native speaker. The best way of
learning stress is to hear native speakers. There are no certain and
unexceptional rules of stress. However, the following rules will be helpful for
the students.
1. Monosyllabic
words (only lexical words) are atomically stressed first syllable. e.g. pen,
quick, quite, rice, book, go, school, read, bad, good, on the man, fill etc.
2. The nouns,
adjectives and adverbs of two syllables are generally stressed on the first
syllable.
Nouns: 'teacher,
'student, 'anger etc.
Adjectives: 'content,
'happy, 'healthy, 'violent, etc.
Adverbs: 'always,
'often, 'quickly, 'slowly, 'purely, 'seldom, rarely, 'daily, etc.
Exceptions: ex'am,
ex'act, ex'treme, ma'chine, hu'mane, hotel, ci'gar, Ne'pal, ro'mance, career,
u'nique, po'lite, po'lice, bam'boo, shampoo, ball'oon, cartoon, na'ture,
mature, sup'reme, presi'tige, fatigue, routine, pa'trol etc.
3. Two syllabic
verbs are generally stressed on the second (final) syllable.
con'tine,
con'test, e'lect, collect, cor'rect, sug'gest, suffice, suspect, sus'pend,
sur'vive, sur'mise etc.
Exceptions: 'open,
'order, 'enter, 'banter.
4. Three syllabic
words are generally stressed on the first syllable.
'holiday,
'yesterday, Saturday, 'photograph, 'likelihood, etc.
5. Words with more than three syllables generally receive stress on the third
syllable from the last. In other words, the words of four, five, six and seven
syllables are stressed on the first, second, third, fourth and fifth syllables
respectively.
Words with four
syllables: a'cademy, pho'tographer, certificate, cu'rriculum.
Words with five
syllables: anniversary, university, catholicity.
Words with six
syllables: responsibility, inferi'ority, impossibility, converti'bility.
Words with seven
syllables: Individu'ality, impenerability etc.
6. In words beginning with prefixes like a, be, for, re, im, in, en, un il, ir,
inter, over, under, pre and to the stress falls on the syllable after the
prefix, e.g.
a = a'go, a'mong,
a'like, a'wake, a'side, a'bout, a'bide, a'bode, a'bove, a'bridge,
be = be'side,
be'cause, be'fore, be'gin, be'come, be'side, be'take,
for = for'get,
for'bid, for'bear, fore'bode, for'sake, for'sooth, fore'see,
re = re'view,
re'open, re'write, re'lief, re'mark, re'think, re'move, re'mote, re'new,
im = in'portant,
im'possible, im'partial, im'pure, im'prove.
in = in'adequate,
in'audible, in'apt, inb'orn, in'built, in'capable, in'centive,
ir = irregular,
ir'rational, ir'radicate, ir'reverent,
il =-illegal, illogical, illimitable,
il'lusion, illusive
en = en'joy,
en'large, en'join, en'gross, en'grave, en'tomb
un = un'berable,
un'bar, un'asked, un'answered, un'seen, un'dying, un'fold, etc.
inter =
international, interfere, inter'lace, inter'lock, inter'tain, inter'vence
under =
understand, under'go, under'line, underneath, under'sell, underrate
pre = pretend,
pre'test, pre'cede, pre'dominate, pre'fect, pre'fer, prejudge
to = to'day,
to'night, to'morrow, to'bacco, to'gether, to'do, to'mato.
7. Words with suffixes like ic, ics, tion, sion, ical, ically, ity, ial, ially,
ian, ious are stressed on the syllable that precedes the suffix.
appolo'getic,
elec'tric, mathe'matics, edu'cation, compo'sition, per'mission, compre'hension,
gra'matical, po'litical, po'litically, ac'tivity, elec'tricity, in'dustrial,
arti'ficial, cere'monial, confi'dential, e'quality, confi'dentially. offi'cial,
poli'tician, 'anxious, in'jurious, la'borious, arithme'tician, beau'tician,
appli'cation, etc.
8. The inflexional suffixes as -es, -ing, -ed and the derivative suffixes as -
age, -en, -ess, -ful, -fy, -hood, -ice, -ist, -ive, -less, -ly, -ment, -ship,
etc, do not affect the stress. (if you find a word with one of these suffixes
at first you derive the root and stress it).
Root or stem Inflected or
derived word
'house 'houses
'likely 'likelihood
'beauty 'beautiful
'want 'wanted
'move 'movement
de'velop de'velopment
9. In the compound
words the stress falls on the first element. e.g.
'pick pocket
'white house.
'mid night
10. Sometimes the combination of two words makes a phrase (not compound noun)
in such a case, the stress automatically falls on both. Look at the pellet
comparison.
(a) 'blackboard (a board placed in front of the
class to write may not be black)
'black 'broad (any board that is black)
(b) English teacher (a teacher of English)
'English teacher (a teacher from England)
(c) Goldfish (name
of fish)
'Gold 'fish (a fish made of gold)
Best of Luck
.jpg)
